As the First World War drew to a close, Allied forces swept out Imperial German forces accross the European continent. Four years of brutal warfare had left Europe exhausted and in ruins. Battle-weary troops pushed on into Germany and by October 1918 it was clear that the Germans had lost.
The damage caused was terrible. Europe - formerly the powerhouse of intellectual thinking and economic progress - had been reduced to a ration-taking ruin. The once-mighty empires of Russia, Austria-Hungary and Turkey were now rotting corpses; the Tsar lay dead, Turkey a backwater whilst the Habsburg's would pay for their alleigance to Kaiser Wilhelm.
Economically, things were even worse. Yes, there had been real progress made in the development of weapons and machinary, but this was no consulation for the fact that an estimated 35 million people had died worldwide (either from direct war or disease).
Germany lost 15% of her adult population. 6 million Central powers soldiers had died; 4 million Allies. Meanwhile millions of refugees lay displaced accross Europe, carrying sickness and diseases with them as they went home. The Flu killed 50 million people alone.
It was a war to change life as we knew it. Britain and France's colonieis - so vital in the war effort - now began to think about independence, whilst the lack of working men had led to a boom in working women. Women now did industrial work and began pushing for the vote too. The heirarchical structure of society began to break.
Before all of this could be sorted out though, a peace solution was needed and quickly. Never mind death, disease and disorder - what should be done with Germany and her allies?
It was a war to change life as we knew it. Britain and France's colonieis - so vital in the war effort - now began to think about independence, whilst the lack of working men had led to a boom in working women. Women now did industrial work and began pushing for the vote too. The heirarchical structure of society began to break.
Before all of this could be sorted out though, a peace solution was needed and quickly. Never mind death, disease and disorder - what should be done with Germany and her allies?
The victorious nations that decided what to do with Germany and the conquered countries, met at Versailles in Paris. Initially this was Britain (under Lloyd-George), France (under Clemenceau), USA (under Wilson) and Itlay (under Vitti). However, Italy soon stormed out, leaving just three dominant members - known as 'The Big Three'. They gathered at the Palace of Versailles
The Aims of the Big Three and how they viewed one another
France
Who is this Wil-son? What does he know about Europe?
Lloyd-Georges! He is just:
As for what France wants, it is simple:
USA
Clemenceau is unbelievable. He is rude, talks over everyone and insists on his way.
I can do business with L-G. He's a bit stuffy but we get on OK.
It's hard to tell Empire-based countries that self-independence and freedom of the seas is crucial to world peace. They don't listen.
Britain
The French: quick to anger and slow to reason
Ah Wilson, such a dreamer. The problem with him is he thinks the whole world is rosy.
Personally I'm having all sorts of problems: I promised the British public I would 'hang the Kaiser' and 'squeeze him til the pips squeeked' ... but I know that a successful Treaty must be based on her ability to Trade. Only then will we both get out of the economic horrors of this war. However, she should still pay... in some form.
The Treaty of Versailles
The Kaiser had fled. The first question the victors had to answer was: Who would represent Germany at the peace talks, scheduled for the Palace of Verailles, France (see picture to the right). Specifically it was signed in the Hall of Mirrors (see second picture below).
In the end, they chose the simple answer: No-one would represent Germany. Instead, the Big 3 (Lloyd-George, Clemenceau and Wilson) took to deciding post-war Europe pretty much single handedly. Their terms for Germany's surrendor became known as 'The Treaty of Versailles' and are outlined below. Hover over to see more.
Territory
Germany lost: Alsace-Lorraine to France, Rhineland was to be demilitarized, ‘The Polish Corridor’ (West Prussia and Posen) to Poland, the port of Danzig to the LON, Upper Silesia to Poland, North Schleswig to Denmark, forbidden Anschluss, all colonies as ‘mandates’ to the League of Nations. All in all it lost 10% of land, 12.5% of its population, 16% of coalfields and almost 50% of steel industry.
Military
Army was limited to 100 000 men, conscription was banned (soldiers had to be volunteers), Germany was not allowed any tanks, submarines or aircraft, navy was allowed 6 battleships, the Rhineland became demilitarized (no troops allowed in)
Reparations
Article 231: Germany was to accept all blame for starting the war or risk partition
Reparations: Germany had to pay £6.6billion – this was designed to be paid up until 1984! Taken in the form of valuable coal and iron ore resources.
LON
The League of Nations was established, as Point Number 14 of Wilson’s ‘14 points’. Germany was not invited until it proved itself to be peaceful. For more information on this topic see Unit 2.
The Treaty was signed by the new German government - the Weimar Republic - led by Ebert. National outrage followed in Germany but there was little they could really do. From here on, they were supposed to sit back and let the allies help themselves to German resources.
The negotiations did not go smoothly though. The Big 3 had very different ideas about what they wanted. The Treaty was anything but harmonious.
* Lost swathes of land to Romania, Yugosloavia and Czechoslovakia
* Thousands of ethnic Hungarians lived outside their homeland as the border was redrawn with neighbouring powers
* It lost 60% of its population
* Lost all trading routes via the Med; real loss of income
* Popular phrase for the Treaty in Hungary was 'No, No, Never!
* Very humiliating considering its former size and influence
* Breaking up the Hapsburg Empire meant a loss of markets and trade restrictions
* They never could afford to pay back the reparations
* Italy felt it did not get enough land in Hungary!
* The Hapsburg Empire had fallen and was ordered to be dismantled
* Bohemia and Moravia were given away to newly formed Czechoslovakia
* Yugoslavia could would have Bosnia and Herzegovinia
*Humiliated by being denied union with Germany.
* Felt hard done by as they lost land to 5 countries
* Lost a lot of their economic industrial land to ally-friendly Czechoslovakia
* The Ottoman Empire had fallen after hundreds of years
* All colonies were stripped and given away e.g. Syria and Palestine
*Had to totally disarm
* Lost land to its neighbour and rival, Greece.
* Split the country into civil war as they refused to sign it.
* Mustafa Kemal renegotiated the whole treaty in 1923 Treaty of Laussane!
* Reclaimed Anatolia at this meeting
* Muslim factions disdained Western occupation in the region
* Turks resented Western insistence that all financial matters go through them first!
* Had to toally disarm
* Ordered to pay $100m reparations
* Lost land to neighbours such as Yugoslavia, Greece and Romania
* Lost access to the seas
The Washington Conference 1921: Britain, France and the USA agreed to limit their naval sizes relative to each other
The Dawes Plan 1924: Put American loans into Germany. Boosted jobs and industry. The basis for Golden Era
Locarno Treaties 1925: 7 nations agreed on borders, including Germany: LON was ratified
The Kellog-Briand Pact 1925: 65 nations agreed that peaceful negotiations would settle disputes. Led by British and French foreign ministers
Vilna 1920
Poland and Lithuania both wanted the city of Vilna. Poland then marched their troops in. LON called for a plebiscite. Poland disagreed and it didn’t happen. Lithuania remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927! Not a successful piece of business by the League of Nations
Upper Silesia, 1921
Upper Silesia was a part of Germany that - after the First World War - was split ethnically between Germans and Poles. Some clamoured for Polish rule, others for German. The debate was taken to the League of Nations, who decided to hold a plebiscite (vote). It was a close run vote, and no majority answer was given. As a result, since the areas who wanted Polish rule were closer to Poland, the area was split along regional lines, thus placating both sides.
The Aaland Islands 1921
Quite why Sweden decided that they wanted these tiny islands is a little confusing, but for some reason Sweden demanded this collection of Scandinavian islands in 1921, even though they officially belonged to Finland. Finland appealed to the LON. The League delved into its history books and discussed the situation with both countries, before deciding it should remain with Finland. However, the Islands are allowed to retain their culture and heritage, which is more Swedish
Liberia 1920s
The League of nations received many complaints of slave labour on the American Firestone plantation, in Liberia. THe LON sent out investigators who agreed but who also claimed that the government was corrupt and so nothing could be done. The President of Liberia resigned. The League did nothing more.
Corfu 1923
Italy and Greece came close to war over Corfu.
Albania and Greece were having a border dispute. Both claimed the same land. Italian LON representatives were sent out to solve the case.
When one –Tellini—was murdered in Greek territory, Italy retaliated by bombing Greek Corfu! Italy demanded compensation. LON agreed and Greece was punished
Geneva Protocol 1924
This was an agreement which all countries would sign, promising to take any international dispute to the LON. This came after Italy had taken matters into their own hands with Corfu. Britain and France created it but a general election in Britain meant there was a change in government and so the treaty was never passed! It was a hollow agreement.
Bulgaria 1925
Skirmishes broke out between Greek and Bulgarian troops at their mutual border. Bulgaria evacuated its troops and complained directly to the LON. The LON acted quicly; Greece was forced to pay compensation and left Bulgaria.
This was the biggest test - and failure -for the League. It all started in 1931 when the Japanese government claimed that the South Manchurian Railway (a Japanese used railway in semi-independent Manchuria) had been sabotaged by the Chinese.
Stage 1: Action
The Japanese sent in ground and air troops and soldiers used brutal tactics - such as at the infamous 'rape of Nan King'. They quickly set up a puppet government and claimed they were 'restoring order' to a chaotic region.
But the Japanese generals pressed on, seeing an advantage, despite their government's instructions to stop. They bombed Shanghai and when China appealed to the League, told the League it was simply a local dispute.
The League had to act. Unfortunately, they sent Lord Lytton as their reporter.... on a boat. It took him a year to get to Manchuria; September 1932.
Stage 2: Reaction
Lord Lytton quickly concluded that Japan had been in the wrong and that Manchuria was rightfully Japanese. The League decided to take it to a vote, whilst Japane just pressed on deeper into China.
The vote came out in favour of China. Disgusted, the Japanese government - ruled by the Divine Emperor - just stormed out of the League.
The League had to plan action; sanctions were discussed, but this was a time of hardship and no one wanted to lose valuable markets after the Great Depression. Everyone volunteered each other for sanctions, no one did it. Military action was also not taken up; it would take a whole year just to get near Japan, by which time they would be ready, whilst only the USA and USSR had the might to take on Japan... and they weren't in the League.
Instead, the LON decided to argue it was a 'special' case, that Japan deserved differential treatment as it was bringing civilisation to a chaotic region. Mussolini and Hitler watched on with glee.
If the Japanese got away with murder (literally) in Manchuria, the Italians went one better (or worse) in Abyssinia. Abyssinia - modern day Ethiopia - was a country with a rich cultural heritage, dating back to BC and the Queen of Sheeba. In the twentieth century it was ruled by Haile Selassie.
Over in Italy, Mussolini was building a 'New Rome', and needed raw materials and an empire to fund his ever-growing military. But he knew he couldn't just invade any old country: he needed an excuse.
Which was when he remembered that Abyssinia had 'humiliated' Italy in 1896 when the Italians had tried to conquer the country. Here was a perfect opportunity to avenge that defeate.
The excuse came with a dispute at Wal-Wal when some Ethiopian and Italian forces clashed. Mussolini readied his army, Selassie went straight to the League of Nations.
The League of Nations called Mussolini in, and he played their game... all the meanwhile dispatching his forces to Africa. Britain and France pretended not to notice... after all they wanted an ally against the increasingly militaristic Hitler. In fact, they even signed the Stressa Pact between them all promising to stand up to German agression. Abyssinia was not mentioned.
When the British and French public found out, there was a great outcry for Selassie. Pressurized, Britain and France offer Mussolini part of Abyssinia. He rejects it and launches a full scale invasion.
The League discusses sanctions and bans all arms sales to Italy. But this is far, far too late. They also failed to close the Suez Canal which would have forced Italy right round Africa. Without sanctions from the USA - where Italy got most of their supplies - these were all useless though.
Meanwhile, Hoare and Laval (the British and French foreign ministers) plead with Mussolini behind the scenes, promising to give him 2/3rds of it in exchange for calling off the invasion. The Plan is leaked, the governments are disgraced and poor Selassie could do nothing but watch as he became the last living Emperor of his country.
Since no action is taken, th US increased oil sales to Italy. The League just resigns itself to defeat. On 2 May 1936 Selassi was forced into exile
When assessing who was to blame for the outbreak of war, we must first take a look at what Hitler did specifically that caused unrest.
1933 Hitler storms out out of the League... it's dead in the water now
Hitler Rearms: Unemployed workers drawn into the army, 1931
o Rearmed secretly at first before withdrawing from League in 1931
o Openly staged a massive military rally, 1935
o Signed a naval agreement with Britain in 1935 allowing him to increase the navy to 2/3rds of Britain’s.
o Introduced conscription to the army, 1936
o Soldiers up from 100 000 to 950 000 from 1932-1939 – warships from 30-95
Saar Plebiscite
o Technically this was not reversing the TOV. The Saar was an industrial region which had been ruled by the League of Nations. After a ‘plebiscite’ (or vote), the people decided to be ruled by Germany. This was entirely legal and a real boost for Hitler.
Rhineland remiliterized
o In March 1936 Hitler took a real risk by moving troops into the Rhineland despite the TOV saying it should be demilitarized, and despite the fact that Germany had promised to keep it Demiliterized at the Locarno Treaties of 1925.
o Hitler claimed that France and Russia were threatening him by signing the Mutual Assistance Pact and so had a right to invade
o British public opinion felt the Treaty had been too harsh now.
o The attention of the League was on the Abyssinian Crisis and so only condemned Hitler
o The French were about to have an election and did not want to risk war
o The gamble paid off, even though Hitler ordered his troops to retreat at the first sign of resistance!
Spanish Civil War
o In 1936 a civil war broke out between Communists who supported the Republican government, and right-wing rebels under General Franco.
o Hitler saw this as a great way to attack Communism and test his new weapons out.
o In 1937, the League looked on in horror as Hitler sent German aircraft to bomb Spanish civilian cities for Franco. The worst example was the bombing of Guernica.
Anti Commintern Pact
o Italy had also helped Franco against the Communists. In 1937 Italy, Germany and Japan all felt they had a lot in common and so signed the Anti-Commintern (which means anti-Communist) pact.
o The idea was to limit communist influence around the world
Anschluss
o Hitler encouraged the Austrian Nazis to stir up trouble for the government. They staged demonstrations calling for union with Germany. They caused riots
o Hitler then told the Austrian Chancellor, Schuschnigg that only Anschluss would solve the problems. Britain and France ignored the happenings.
o Schuschnigg called a plebiscite (referendum) to choose.
o Hitler wasn’t prepared to risk this so he just marched his troops into Austria
o Under the watchful eyes of the Nazis 99.75% voted in favour of Anschluss
o Britain and France felt it was only fair that Hitler got what was essential his anyway and were not prepared to go to war over a harsh treaty.
Sudentenland
o Edward Beneš was the leader of Czechoslovakia. He realized after the Anschluss that Czechoslovakia would be next.
o He therefore signed a Treaty with France
o Chamberlain was told by Hitler that ‘Czechoslovakia has nothing to fear from the Reich’
o However, Hitler did want it – the country had many Germans living in its borders, as it was created by the TOV.
o Henlein, leader of the Nazis in Czechoslovakia, stirred up trouble and demanded union
o Beneš knew he could not lose the Sudetenland; it had important coal, iron and railway industries. He was ready to fight, and built many air-raid shelters.
oIt became obvious Hitler was about to invade. In a last-ditch attempt Chamberlain flew out to meet Hitler; Hitler said he only wanted Sudetenland but then changed his mind. War seemed imminent
oA final meeting was scheduled by Mussolini in Munich to avoid war. (The Munich Conference) Br, Ger, France and It decided that Czechoslovakia could lose Sudetenland. They did not consult the Czechs or the USSR.
o Chamberlain returned with the Munich Agreement claiming he had secured ‘peace for our time’
o Hitler marched into Sudetenland. Beneš resigned.
Czechoslovakia
Hitler felt that Britain and France would not actually risk war
o On March 15 the Nazis then took over the rest of Czechoslovakia
oThe Czechs did not resist, neither did Britain or France
o It was now clear to the world that Hitler was a liar and untrustworthy
o Britain now guaranteed Poland that if Hitler tried to invade they would stand up for Poland.
Nazi Soviet Pact
o Stalin was v.worried about Hitler’s actions; Hitler openly said he would take Russian land and hated Communists
o Stalin couldn't get any deals done with Br and Fr, LON was dead
o Despite signing a Mutual Assistance Pact with Fr, Stalin was worried.
o The Munich Agreement was worse– Stalin wasn't consulted
o Stalin kept arranging meetings with Br and Fr but nothing came of them
o Instead, he also met with Ribbentrop – German foreign minister – and discussed the Nazi-Soviet Pact
o In August 1939 they stunned the world with the deal
Poland
oThe Nazi Soviet Pact cleared the way for Hitler’s invasion of Poland; he invaded from the west whilst Stalin invaded from the east. Poland quickly fell.
oHitler’s next move was surely USSR but on 2nd September 1939 Britain and France declared war on Germany. Hitler’s luck had run out.
War!
The Allied forces had pushed Nazi Germany back in 1944-5, after launching D-Day and fending off a desperate German counter-resistance. Hitler was pronounced dead and the war in Europe came to an end.
As the war drew to an end, the Big 3 - Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill sat down to discuss what to do with Germany; echoes of 1918 in their minds.
The mood was good; the Russians were happy that the Americans had opened up a second front in the West, and it was clear that the Nazis were being swept away. Japan was still a problem
though. As they discussed
what to do, several agreements were made. Russia would give
the US a helping hand and join
the war in Japan. Germany would have to suffer the humiliation of total surrender, and would be divided into four zones according to where the different allied troops were. Berlin would suffer the same fate. All Nazi-controlled states would get free elections, though Stalin would be allowed some influence in Eastern Europe; the Russians had - after all - lost 20 million men.
How short lived the 'Yalta-feel' was. By July 1945 when the Big 3 met at Postdam (where Atlee had replaced Churchill and Truman replaced Roosevelt) the mood was sour. Stalin had dragged his heels about helping the US in Japan and was now very worried over Truman's claims that a weapon of mass destruction would be used against them. Why had he not been told? Similarly, Truman was outraged that Stalin was not moving from eastern Europe, and now deep divisions were arising on what to do with Germany. Quite how it should be split and the amount of reparations could not be agreed. From best friends to suspicious neighbours, times had changed.
Relations were bad at Potsdam. They got worse. Stalin left 3 million of his troops in Eastern Europe and quickly rigged elections in his favour. Within months, eastern Europe had become satelite states to Russia, all the way to Eastern Germany.
By 1946 the situation was encapsulated by Churchill's visit to Fulton University, Missouri where he gave a speech showing how an invisible 'iron curtain' had spread accross eastern Europe, dividing the free countries of the west from the subjugated countries of the east.
After Germans left Greece there were two rival groups left: the Monarchists and Communists. Greece was seen as a backdoor to western Europe and the home of democracy. As a result, Churchill sent troops to Greece in 1945, under the pretence of maintaining order, but in reality to help the Monarchists. The USSR appealed to the new United Nations but it did nothing as the United States had a veto– Stalin therefore paid for the Communists in Greece to keep fighting. It was now a proxy Civil War, backed by two different sides.
The British could not afford to spend more money on war, so declared they were leaving Greece. Fearing the spread of Communism, the Americans stepped in and paid for the British to stay. The US was now fighting the USSR through the UK and Greece! In the end the monarchists won, but were always very weak. Greece showed the world that America was no longer isolationist but interventionist.
President: 1945-53
Issues at hand: European post-war economic recovery, Communist influence in Eastern Europe, domestic racism, spread of Communism worldwide, McCarthyism
Policies: Introduced Marshall Aid and Truman Doctrine. Sought to meet Communism head-on with an iron fist. Was stern with Stalin and allowed him no room. Felt a dual approach of economic aid and military might would help win the day. Came up with Containment.
Truman Doctrine
A political idea which promised money, equipment and advice to any country which was threatened by a Communist takeover
The aim was to stop communism from spreading any further – a policy known as ‘containment’. The struggle in Greece had persuaded Truman this was necessary
Position: Chief of Staff of the Army, Secretary of State, and third Secretary of Defense.
History: Fought in WW1 and became organizer of US troops in WW2, leading them to victory. Was then advisor to Truman
Policies: Sent to Europe to analyse its state. Was appalled. Feared spread of Communism due to excessive hardship faced in Europe. Believed great monetary expansion was needed.
Marshall Aid
Aso known as the European Recovery Program
It claimed that about $17billion would be needed to rebuild Europe’s economy and stop it from falling into Communist hands (the thinking was that the poorer the nation, the more likely this would happen)
Initially the US Congress rejected this idea and the amount of money. However, after Czechoslovakia's pro-democracy leader was murdered it made it available over 4 years
Content
The first real test of this post-Stalin/Truman era came in Cuba in 1963. The Cuban Missile Crisis - as it came to be known - can be split into different sections, starting before the 60s with the Cuban Revolution.
First, it is important to understand that Cuba was Communist. Lying just 90km from the US, Cuba had become Communist under Fidel Castro. Before him, General Fulgencio Batista ruled as a dictator. He was very unpopular but had close relations with the United States, who used Cuba as a playground for their rich and famous. Cheap casinos and big houses for the US, but shortages and hardship for the locals.
In 1953, Castro attempted to overthrow Batista by invading the army barracks with a small band of men. He failed. Epic Failure. This was followed by an 18 month jail stint... and then another attempt...and more failure.
By 1959 his guerrilla tactics won out and he toppled the government. He - along with Che Gueverra - quickly unhooked Cuba's reliance on the USA by signing a sugar trade agreement with the USSR, which gave him thousands of military supplies too.. He drew up plans to nationalize all of the country, and evicted the rich Americans that lived there. America had a Communist neighbour.
Kennedy had been humiliated with the Bay of Pigs incident, but the heat was to be turned up a notch in October 1962 when US U2 spy-planes photographed a shocking secret: Nuclear bases were being built on Cuba.
If that wasn't bad enough, Kennedy's advisers claimed they could be ready in 7 days, AND U2 spy-planes saw 20 Soviet ships on their way to Cuba. If nothing was done, Cuba would be going nuclear.
Kennedy quickly assembled his Security Council - which included his brother - and decided on blockading Cuba. They would allow Soviet ships to come within a 800km radius of Cuba, but no further. If they did come closer, nuclear war would erupt. Kennedy also sent a letter to Khrushchev demanding the demolition of the nuclear bases (Letter 1)
Khrushchev's response is to play for time. He tests Kennedy by ignoring the letter and the blockade. Kennedy prepares to ready nuclear war until, at the last moment, Khrushchev turns the ships round. Nevertheless, the sites in Cuba are till being built, whilst Khrushchev sends two letters (Letters 2 and 3), firstly negotiating the missile situation and secondly ordering the removal US bases in Turkey in exchange. After a US spy-plane is shot down over Cuba, Kennedy is left embarressed. He decides to ignore Letter 3 and go with Letter 2. The Turish missiles remain but Khrushchev complies and the missile sites are removed.
The Cuban Missile Crisis had rocked the USA. Meanwhile however, over on the other side of the world, in Vietnam, another epic struggle was taking shape. The spotlight of the Cold War would move to the Far East.
Whilst Cuba had been the spotlight for some time, Vietnam had also been given attention by the USA. After China became Communist in 1953 the Domino Theory became part of Containment strategy
Domino Theory: The belief that if one country fell to Communism, others would quickly follow. Containment was needed to therefore ensure Communism did not spread. This belief made the Cold War global but ensured figting did not erupt within already-Communist countries. First came to play under President Eisenhower and the Korean War.
Vietnam's 10 Second History
* Formerly an empire in the South East Asian region - under the Lê Dynasty
* Vietnam then suffered colonisation by the French in the 1800s.
* Although this was not popular, French rule continued until WW2 when Japan swept through the region and took control of Vietnam.
*The Japanese were even more hated than the French and resistance - led by rebel leader Ho Chi Minh's Viet Minh - helped flush out the Japanese.
* Nevertheless, the French returned after Germany was defeated, albeit in a weakened state.
The French, though, were having huge domestic problems and were not the empire they were before the war. They continued to fight Ho Chi Minh and set up a military branch especially for this, but once China turned Communist (1953) Ho received even more funding.
The French were being beaten back and faced their last, humiliating defeat at Dien Bien Phu where Ho Chi Minh triumphed. The Geneva Accords then decided a settlement, where the North (Ho Chi Minh) and South (Ngo Dinh Diem) of Vietnam would be temporarily divided until elections the following year.
Fearful of the Domino Theory, the USA (under Eisenhower) started to back Diem and elections never occured. Vietnam was the new Cold War arena.
I guess you could say I started the whole thing with the policy of Containment and pursuing it round the globe.
Well, let's see... I gave the French US $1 billion to keep them fighting. The Frogs weren't up to it though, even with the 300 00 small arms I gave em! I also backed the hated Diem with money. Didn't do us great tho!
I totally upped the ante. I increased 'military advisors' in South Vietnam from 900 to 16 000. I also sent CIA operatives to train up the local forces; my vision was to get Diem to fend for himself, but my government ended up assassinating him as he was too unreliable.
My strategy was pretty clear cut: I wanted to focus on the USA internally. But then we were attacked at the Gulf of Tonkin. After that I passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution and the idea was More, More, More. I tried flooding the region with troops - by 1965 there were just under 400 000 US (and ANZAC) soliders in Vietnam.
I ordered intense bombing of the area (more bombs dropped on Cambodia and Vietnam than on Japan in entire WW2) under codenames like Operation Rolling Thunder. 3500 helicopters were put in for transport too.
My government finally got us out of Vietnam, but disastrously. We left after the Tet Offensive and My Lai. We pursued a policy of 'Vietnamization' which was supposed to allow the Vietnamese to fight for themselves, under the Nixon Doctrine. I brought back a quater of a million men. I carried on heavy bombing of Cambodia and Laos under Operation Menu (see below). We then signed a cease fire as the last troops came home in 1973 called the Paris Peace Accords.
Dien Bien Phu – General Giap led the Vietminh army to victory against the French when he surrounded their forces and bombarded their position. The French were pinned down and unable to get adequate supplies through because the Vietminh had been supplied with anti-aircraft missiles, and moved quickly through the jungle. Such was the embarrassment in France that the government resigned!
This was the promise that there would be free elections in Vietnam once order was restored and the French had left. The country was temporarily divided into 2, with Diem holding the South and Ho Chi Minh the North. The USA began to back Diem and blocked elections.
This was an operation by joint US and South Vietnamese forces to divide communist guerrillas from villagers. The idea was to provide peasants with new housing, education and healthcare which they would then appreciate and show loyalty toward the US. The peasants though, hated being moved from their ancestral homelands –an important part of Buddhism – and were never really given the promised reforms
The puppet of the US, and ruler of S. Vietnam was killed off in a coup organized by the USA.
This was the incident that gave Johnson the excuse he needed to increase troops in Vietnam. US warships were supposedly engaged in combat by N. Vietnamese ships, in S. Vietnamese waters. This was seen as an act of war. Johnson therefore passed the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution which promised assistance to any South East Asian country under attack from Communists.
The Tet Festival was an important Vietnamese holiday, signaling the beginning of the year. On January 1968 VietCong forces poured into Saigon and the surrounding countryside. Over 80 000 Communist troops stormed South Vietnam, catching the North Vietnamese and USA by surprise. They took the US embassy in Saigon. The USA—under General Westmoreland—soon regrouped and inflicted heavy casualties on the North Vietnamese. Estimates vary from 10 000-37 000 were killed. President Johnson began scaling back troop involvement as a result.
In March 1968 ‘Charlie’ Company massacred a hamlet at Mai Lai, including women and children. The event was only uncovered in 1969. Led by Lieutenant Barker (overall command) with William Calley and Captain Medina (on the ground). After Tet Offensive, Barker ordered Calley to eradicate all Vietcong—they went into Mai Lai, found only villagers but rounded them up, abused, raped and killed them, before mass burying them. Even animals were slaughtered. Only Officer Hugh Thompson and his crew protested: he flew his helicopter between US troops and Vietnamese civilians, and helped children out of the area. Between 300-500 civilians were murdered. The USA was horrified and the press began to step-up anti-Vietnam sentiments. Only Calley was charged, and even he was let off after 3 years.
This was President Nixon’s way of scaling back and then ending involvement in Vietnam. The idea was that the USA would begin to leave, and train up the South Vietnamese in a process known as ‘Vietnamization’, whilst peace talks would go on.
This was the secret bombing of Cambodia and Laos by the USA by President Nixon. It was aimed and ensuring Communism was contained only to Vietnam, not the neighbouring countries.
This was an enormous attack by the North Vietnamese and Vietcong on the South. Initially it looked as though the South would fall until the USA conducted a large bombing campaign known as Operation Linebacker.
This was the ceasefire between the two sides. However it didn’t last long; by 1975 Vietnam had totally become Communist.
Who was Nikita Sergeyevich Khrushchev?
Factfile
Problems:
Factfile
Born: 19 December 1906, in Ukraine
Education: Communist training, military service
During WW2: Was a tank commander, helped push Nazis out of Czechoslovakia
Politics: Joined the Communist Party in 1929, helped remove Khrushchev in 1964
Policies: Reversed Khruschev's reforms, preferred iron fist to moderate reform
Problems: The Economy. Output growth was low despite successive 5 Year Plans. Tried focusing on 'white goods' like refrigerators, to combat rising disatisfaction
Oil prices were soaring; it cost over double in the 1970s compared to 1960s.
Military: Interfered in Afghanistan in 1978, where the USSR got involved in a very long - and ultimately humiliating - war.
Foreign Policy: Oversaw Detente, though this was more through neccessity than desire.
Oversaw the Brezhnev Doctrine, see below.
Died: Nov 8 1982
The Brezhnev Doctrine
* Claimed the USSR had the right to intervene in any country that deviated from the Communist way.
*Proclaimed after Czechoslovakia 1968, as a justifincation
*Also used in Afghanistan 1978 and Poland 1980
Except all was not well. Nagy realised his support came from the people. The people relied on reform. Reform was key and so Nagy began implementing exactly what the USSR did not want: Reform. Freer elections were mentioned, increased democracy was talked of, censorship began to be eased and criticism of the government came to light
The army swears loyalty to Nagy and praise for his reforms began pouring in. Here was a visionary surely! Nagy had such a support base that he even declared Hungary neutral in the Cold War struggle. Amazingly, the USSR - keen to be seen as not heavy handed, remained quiet.
But then Nagy went one step too far. he decided Hungary would leave the Warsaw Pact. This was too much even for Khrushchev. If Hungary left, then what would stop others from leaving? an example would have to be made of Hungary.
Within days the Red Army was seen rolling toward Hungary, tanks and forces. Flooded with troops, all resistance was crushed as 200 000 fled into neighbouring Austria. Despite his brave rhetoric, Nagy is killed and in two weeks Hungarian opposition was brutally supressed in Operation Whirlwind.
The USSR punish Hungary by putting Jonas Kadar into power. He continues supressing 'anti-communists' for years and realigns Hungary with the Warsaq Pact.
Despite the Hungarian Freedom Fighter being Time Magazines 'Man of the Year' in 1956, Hungary was put down.
In 1945, the USSR had been Czechoslovakia's hero, liberating them from Nazi oppression. The Red Army was met with euphoria as the locals joined hands with their Russian liberators, and flushed the Nazis out of their country. By 1968, the liberators had become the oppressors. High prices, no economic freedom and heavy censorship had led to great satisfaction. The USSR had outstayed her welcome.
In 1967, Breznev had replaced Khushchev. The Czechoslovakian leader - Novotny - had followed Khrushchev's destalinisation policy but many were unhappy. Remember, Czehoslovakia had been one of the most industrialized eastern European countries before WW2. Soon, the Czech people began to demand more. When a bad harvest forced prices rocketing, Novotny lost support
Demonstrations began. Novotny, worried, appealed for help from the USSR. Breznev ignored him and allowed a new government to form under Alexander Dubček. Spurred on by the people, he launched the 'Action Programme' which proposed sweeping reforms in society and economy.
The 'Action Programme' proposed an introduction of market workings in the country, as well as liberalization of the press. Discontented press members jumped at the opportunity and began furiously pumping out anti-government rhetoric that had been contained for years. Poets, authors, illustrators all joined in... this became known as the Prague Spring.
The USSR began to get uneasy. Breznev remembered Hungary's attempt at freedom. Dubček was summoned to Moscow in an attempt to slow him down. He was quizzed about rumours of a new Czechoslovakian constitution, and Red Army tanks rolled to the border to show how serious the USSR was. Other East European leaders began squirming at the idea of widespread reform. Breznev decided to talk face to face with Dubček to sort it out.
At a meeting in July 1968 the two men sat down and came to an agreement on the length and depth of the reforms. Part of the idea of the talks was just to take Dubček out of Czechoslovakia and so slow the whole process down. Whilst Dubček felt progress was being made, the USSR was scheming behind his back
Unknown to him, Breznev had summoned the might of the Warsaw Pact member's armies, and the dark storm of war began to gather beyond Czechoslovakia's shores. The USSR then took the world by surprise, when on 21 August 1968, they launched a major miitary offensive against 'capitalist conspirators' in Czechoslovakia. Thousands of tanks moved accross the border and fighting erupted in the streets of Prague.
Breznev was using the Breznev Doctrine to full force
Unprepared, and ill-equipped the Czechs were soon crushed. Dubček ordered passive resistance, but was forced to sign a humiliating treaty, before being demoted to a manual labour job in the forestry department. His reforms were undone and the his people's suffering would go un-czeched (!)
Poland and the USSR had always had an uneasy relationship, dating back to the Nazi-Soviet Pact, and before. As one of the first countries to be encorporated into the USSR, it was also one of the first to strongly rebel.
Strange then, that an electrician - Lech Walesea - should be the figurehead of the uprising. In 1979 Poland faced severe shortages and spiralling food prices. Workers began to protest, starting at a shipyard in Gdansk. The workers formed together and formed a union, calling it Solidarity.
Joining with Catholic and anti-Communist forces, Solidarity soon gained enormous popularity - it had a third of all workers in Poland by 1981! With this came great power; the power to strike. Strikes occurred throughout Poland, and Solidarity became a symbol of resistance in the West. People wore Solidarity badges and Walesea became a cult hero.
The Union was forcing the government into increasing reforms. Moscow looked on unapprovingly and then moved to crush the movement. The USSR appointed Jaruzelski who immediately declared martial law and began a full-scale crack down in 1981. Censorship increased, strikers were fired upon and by 1982 it was banned.
From 1982 - 88 Solidarity moved underground, not daring to be open, and with Walesea imprisoned. It remained very popular though. It was with the arrival of Gorbachev's policies of perestroika and glasnost that Solidarity became live once more.
Once again, terrible food prices - inflation was rising at over 30% in 1988 - caused strikes in Gdansk again. This time the government decided to negotiate, and Walesea (freed from prison) represented the Polish people. He managed to secure the legalization of Solidarity and gain an elections promise. Without pressure from Moscow, the Communists were powerless to say no.
Unsurprisingly Solidarity swept to victory in the elections and Walesea became the first non-Communist Eastern European country.
March 1990: Lithuania is first to leave - USSR try sanctions and troops
Latvia: May 1990
Latvia leave USSR. Soviets refuse to accept this
Georgia: April 1991. Elections held, Communists crushed
Estonia: Aug 1991
The 'Singing Revolution' sees 2m people hold hands - Soviets leave
Ukraine: Aug '91 Seeing the Soviet coup fail, Ukraine hurridly passed independence laws
Belarus: Aug '91
Resentment grew in '88 when mass graves are found. Declare indpendence during coup
Moldova, Azerbaijan, Kyrgystan
Aug '91
Resulted in 'Black January' where the USSR tried to surpress Azerbaijan through force. Kyrgystan govt resigns after a coup
Uzbekistan, Tajikistan, Armenia
Turkmenistan Sept/Oct 91
These countries jump on the bandwagon before it's too late!
Russia: June 12, 1991
The failed coup against Gorbachev totally undermind him and elections were held. A Boris Yeltsin one, and immediately took Russia out of the USSR. The centre folded.
With Russia gone, the rest went too
The General Assembly is the main organ of the UN and is made up of representatives of all Member States. The work of the United Nations comes largely from the orders given by the General Assembly.
The Security Council has primary responsibility, under the UN Charter, for the maintenance of international peace and security. Has 10 non-permanant and 5 permanant members, the 5 hold a veto.
Can make binding resolutions
The Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC), is the main coordinator for the economic, social and related work of the UN Voting is by majority; each member has one vote.
The International Court of Justice, located in the Hague, is the main judge of the United Nations. It settles legal disputes between states and gives advisory opinions to the UN
The Secretary-General is the face of the UN; chosen by General Assembly and Security Council. Can't be from a permanant member country. 5 year stints. Currently Ban-Ki-Moon
The Secretariat carries out the admin work . It serves other principal organs and includes administering peace operations, surveying economic and social trends, preparing studies on human rights, etc.
Early into its creation, the United Nations faced a test in the Far East, much like its predecessor (the League of Nations) had faced in Manchuria.
Founded on the proud cultures of the Qing dynasty , Korea was ruled by Japan from 1896 after years of war. After Japan was defeated in WW2, Korea gained independence again. However, Soviet forces occupied the North, and US forces the South. To avoid confict, it was decided at Potsdam that the country would be divided at the 38th parallel.
Elections were held in each half of the country; in the North the Communist Kim Il Sung came to power, and in the Souththe nationalist Syngman Rhee.,
Seeking to unify Korea,, Kim il-Sung received support from Communist China and the USSR and invaded South Korea in June 1950.
The South Koreans were pushed right back down to Pusan.
The Security Coucil was immediately summoned and met the same day as the invasion! The USSR was not present as they were boycotting the UN for not recognizing Mao's government in China. Therefore, there was no veto to block any US-led initiative
9 out of 11 countries on the Security Council supported the US motion that North Korea was acting illegally.
In June 1950, America called on the United Nations to use force to get rid of the North Koreans as they had ignored the Security Council Once again this was passed owing to the USSR's absence.
The UN then drew up battle plans. Their forces would be headed by an American - Douglas Macarthur; one of the most famous generals of his time. This went down well with the US public.
In September 1950, United Nations troops landed at Inchon. By doing this, they divided the North Korean army in two and pushed them out of South Korea. MacArthur sought a quick end to the war and pushed even further into the North. The Chinese had no option but to defend their buffer zone and so launched an invasion back in January 1951.
By throwing men at the situation, the Chinese pushed the UN forces back; their one advantage was their numbers!
The Americans, under the UN, landed more troops. They used bombers. The Chinese admitted to losing 390,000 men - UN sources put the figure at up to a million Chinese and half a million North Koreans dead. The Americans drove the Chinese back, but lost 54,000 American soldiers dead doing so. MacArthur reached the 38th parallel in March 1951.
After an argument with President Truman, MacArthur was sacked and the war became bogged down; neither side wanted to lose more men.
In 1953, a ceasefire was agreed at the 38th parallel ... where it had all begun.
Mixed results were had as a result of the war; on the one hand, the UN had avoided becoming what the LON was, by taking quick action against North Korea. The South had, after all, been protected.
Nevertheless, it was obvious that this had happened by freak chance; The USSR could easily have blocked it. In fact, the USSR had rejoined the UN in order to block many more resolutions.
To solve this issue ‘Uniting For Peace’ was introduced. This was a document that claimed that if the Security Council vetoed any initiative that was considered important for maintaining peace, the General Assembly should take over to and have the vote. The USSR refused to listen to it though.
So angry were the Soviet's with the UN's behaviour that they refused to back the Secretary-General (Trygve Lie) who was forced to resign.
Finally, it was obvious to the world that the United Nations was heavily influenced by America – nearly 90% of all army personnel, 93% of all air power and 86% of all naval power for the Korean War had come from America.
If Korea was met with mixed results, the waters were muddied even more in Congo. This topsy-turvy, twisty-turny African episode can offen be confusing owing to the amount of people involved. Did the UN do well here or was this a reason why they were so hesitant to get involved in Africa again, when they were really needed, in Rwanda '94?
Stage 1: Background
The region known as Congo became known to Europeans after Henry Morton Stanley explored it at King Leopold II of Belgium's request. At the Conference of Berlin in 1885, when European nations divided up Africa between them, Leopold got Congo and called it the Congo Free State. Later, when he gave up rights to the Belgium Parliament it became known as the Belgium Congo. The natives hated the Belgiums because of the terrible conditions they were made to work in, so taht the Belgiums could benefit
2. After fighting for the Belgians in World War Two, the Congolese began to become increasingly disatisfied with Belgium rule. A series of revolts in the capital -Leopoldville - increased the pace of independence reform and - after international pressure grew - Belgium gave independece to Congo on 30 June 1960, with Joseph Kasavubu as President and Patrice Lumumba as Prime Minister
Stage 3: Independence did not go well; the King of Belgium (now Baudouin I of Belgium) was not received well, whilst Lumumba made a speech which rallied against the Belgians and claimed 'we are not your monkeys anymore'. As a result, in the first few weeks there were many revolts against the white settlers throughout the country
4.As thousands of Europeans fled accross to neighbouring countries, the Belgian government decided to act to protect its citizens; paratroopers were sent in to restore order. Yet according to the UN charter, this was no longer acceptable as Congo was independent! In retaliation, the Lumumba ejected all whites from the army; there was little experience now.
5,Worse was to follow; the various tribal factions - seeing that Lumumba had little real power - began to break away. In the mineral rich area of Katanga Moise Tshombe declared independence with his rebel army. Backed by miners hoping to make a quick profit (as Katanga produced copper, 60% of the world’s uranium and 80% of the world’s industrial diamonds), Tshombe was a real problem.
6. Lumumba appealed to the UN for help under Resolution 143. At this time Dag Hammarskjöld was Secretary General. The UN force had 3 objectives:
1. Restore law and order and maintain it both internally and politically
2. Minimalize the conflict
3. Restore economic stablity
4. To Act in Self-defence only
7. Meanwhile another region - South Kasai - also declared independence Lumumba and when the UN refused to declare war on either Katanga or Kasai, Lumumba went to the USSR who provided air support and troops for a failed attack. This divided opinion in the USA, who began to support the rebels in retaliation (as part of the Cold War struggle).
by September 1960 the country was in chaos; Lumumba and Kasavubu had declared each other void, Katanga was independent under Tshombe and S.Kasai had also broken away. In fact there were four different regimes ruling various places
a) Joseph Mobutu in Leopoldville (supported by Western governments)
b) Antoine Gizenga in Stanleyville, (supported by USSR and Nasser in Egypt)
c) Albert Kalonji in South Kasai
d) Moise Tshombe in Katanga (supported by Belgium and western mining interests)
As civil war was about to break out, Lumumba was murdered and the UN convened the Security Council to avoid mass bloodshed. It was decided they would be allowed to use force. Meanwhile, it also continued to hold talks between the major parties and in August 1961 the factions agreed to hold a joint government with Cyrille Adoula in charge. However Tshombe disagreed, and the new government turned to the UN
The UN then launched Opertaion Rumpunch and Morthor against Katanga. 5000 UN troops flooded the region, forcing Tshombe to flee to Zimbabwe (then Rhodesia). Just when it looked like things would be sorted out, Dag Hammarskjöld died in a plane crash in Congo; some say his plane was shot down. U Thant replaced him and he finally authorized UN forces (in Operation Grand Slam) to take down Tshombe and reunite the country in January 1963. However, turmoil would continued to plague the country - Che Gueverra fought against the government and two years later Kasa Vubu was overthrown by former ally Mobuto